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Home > Vol 16, No 1 (2026) > Huerta Mata

 

 

DIGITAL VIOLENCE IN MEXICAN UNIVERSITY COUPLES: ANALYSIS OF ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH CONFLICT OVER INTERNET USE AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS

1Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo (Mexico)

2Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (Spain)

3Universidad Cardenal Herrera (CEU) (Spain)

Received July 2025

Accepted November 2025

Abstract

The digital environment has transformed intimate relationships, introducing new forms of technology‑facilitated violence such as direct aggression and coercive digital control. This study examined digital violence victimization and internet-use conflicts in Mexican university couples, exploring associations with emotional skills and gender differences. A cross-sectional, correlational design was applied to a sample of 605 university students, 410 women and 195 men (Actopan Higher School, Hidalgo, Mexico), using validated instruments: the victimization subscales of the Digital Abuse in Dating Questionnaire (CDAQ), the Internet-Related Experiences Questionnaire (CERI), and the TMMS-24 Scale on emotional skills. Nonparametric analyses and linear regression were conducted. Results indicate that digital coercive control was the most prevalent form of violence among both genders, while direct aggression showed similarly low scores (women M = 13.62; men M = 14.01; Cohen’s d = −0.08). Gender differences were weak and not statistically robust, as confirmed by multivariate analysis. Intrapersonal conflict predicted coercive control in men and direct aggression in women, although effect sizes were minimal. Emotional clarity and repair correlated negatively with internet-related conflicts, suggesting that socio-emotional skills may act as protective factors. These findings highlight the need for evidence-informed interventions in higher education, including digital literacy and emotional regulation programs to prevent technology-facilitated abuse. This research advances understanding of digital violence victimization in university relationships and informs educational strategies to foster digital safety and emotional well-being.

 

Keywords – Digital violence victimization, Direct aggression and coercive control, Emotional skills, Conflict over internet use, University couples.

 

To cite this article:

Huerta-Mata, R.M., Marcos-Sánchez, R., & Díez-González, M.C. (2026). Digital violence in mexican university couples: Analysis of its relationship with conflict over internet use and emotional skills. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 16(1), 163-179. https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.3740

 

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1. 1.  

      1. Introduction

In the university context, romantic relationships play a crucial role in students’ emotional and social development. At this stage, the bonds that emerge become key anchors for guiding romantic relationships with greater maturity, communication, and reflection on potential conflicts. However, this new reality is not far removed from a growing exposure to the use of digital media. In this scenario, digital violence in romantic relationships is expressed through coercive digital surveillance, monitoring, and control without authorization or through pressure exerted by the partner through direct and indirect aggression. It is important to analyze the extent of digital violence in romantic relationships and conflicts with internet use in relation to emotional skills. It is necessary to contextualize internet use, particularly in social relationships. As technology has become more accessible and usable, new ways of relating have emerged, both for coexistence and for violent purposes.

UNICEF (2019) published data on global internet access. It is notably that this figure stands at 70.6% among the population aged 15 to 24, and they also warn that they are more exposed to digital violence, “more than a third of young people in 30 countries have reported experiencing online harassment” (ONU, n.d.). According to the National Survey on the Availability and Use of Information Technologies in Households (INEGI, 2024), which generates statistical information on policy issues and analysis of national and international studies, in 2024, this growth stands at 6.1 points compared to 2023, both in terms of internet use and connection to a local network.

In Mexico, 81.2% of the population uses the internet, and in the state of Hidalgo, this figure reaches 79.8% (INEGI, 2024). The main device used to access the internet is the mobile phone, with 95.1% of households (96.2% in Mexico). The main uses are for communication (93.3%), accessing social networks (91.5%), and searching for information (87.7%) (INEGI, 2024). In terms of when they access the internet, 90.3% access it daily and 97.1% access it via mobile phones. Finally, the age group with the highest percentage of internet use is 18 to 24 years old, with 96.7% (INEGI, 2024). In terms of this usage and linking it to gender, data indicate that in 2024, 82.5% of men have used the internet via their mobile phones and 81.1% of women (INEGI, 2024).

As seen in the data above, internet use has led to better access to information and has facilitated social relationships and communication. However, not everything has been positive. Loss, Guerra and Souza (2021) state that problematic internet use causes emotional conflicts. Likewise, internet use has led to manifestations of digital violence. In Mexico, men are the ones who perpetrate the most violence in the digital sphere, with 58.1% of men and 56.1% of women being attacked by men. The platforms where this type of violence is most prevalent are Facebook and WhatsApp. Specifically, women aged 12 to 29 are the most vulnerable to digital violence. In 2022, 29.3% of Mexican women aged 20 to 29 were victims of cyberbullying, compared to 23.7% of men of the same age (INEGI, 2022).

On the other hand, in the National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (INEGI, 2021), specifically in the context of the state of Hidalgo (Mexico), 45.6% of women aged 15 and over suffered violence during their current or last relationship. The national average is 39.9%. Therefore, Hidalgo exceeds the national average for intimate partner violence against young women by 5.7 percentage points. They experience the following types of violence: 40.6% psychological, 23.2% economic or property-related, 20.7% physical, and 9.0% sexual. It should be noted that official statistics on cyberbullying predominate, leaving a statistical gap on other types of digital violence. The report on digital violence and cyberbullying (INEGI, 2022) in Mexico reveals that 30.7% of people between the ages of 20 and 29 have been victims of digital harassment, while the age group between 12 and 29 reaches 24.5%. Within these percentages, gender differences are evident in the data, with 48% being women and 52% men. Furthermore, it is relevant that the National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (INEGI, 2021) investigates violence in digital media for the first time. It is in school and the community where women aged 15 to 24 experience the most digital sexual violence throughout their lives.

Therefore, more research is needed on the possible impacts of internet use on habits and situations, and how this can lead to personal and family problems (Fernández, Casal, Fernández & Cebreiro, 2020). In this scenario, there are again differences between genders and age groups in relation to the impact of digital violence.

All of this underscores the relevance of our research within a framework of gender inequality, where men are the ones who create the digital algorithms that reproduce gender roles and stereotypes, and where women are the ones who receive the most digital violence perpetrated by acquaintances (ONU-Mujeres México, 2020). The research aims to analyze the magnitude of victimization through digital violence in the relationships of university students, specifically through direct aggression and coercive digital control, as a consequence of interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts over internet use. It also seeks to examine the impact of such digital violence on the emotional skills of attention, clarity, and repair, considering possible differences according to gender.

Based on this objective, we propose the following hypotheses:

• •The greater the presence of digital violence in the couple, manifested through direct aggression and coercive digital control, the lower the levels of emotional skills of attention, clarity, and repair will be. 

• •Greater use of the internet is a predictor of digital violence (direct aggression and coercive digital control) and correlates with emotional skills of attention, clarity, and repair. 

• •There are significant gender differences in interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts related to internet use, as well as in the manifestation of digital violence through direct aggression and coercive digital control. 

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Digital Violence: Direct Aggression and Coercive Digital Control

For more than a decade, warnings have been issued about the role of the internet in shaping future forms of domestic violence. The incorporation of technology into the formation of sexual identity and patterns of intimate relationships leads young people to lower their expectations of privacy, normalize the lack of boundaries and acceptance of abusive behavior in their relationships. This leads them to increase their exposure to domestic violence in new digital formats and relationship imbalances. Technology is creating more sophisticated forms of violence for greater digital coercive control of partners, for example, instant messaging, global positioning monitoring, digital surveillance (King-Ries, 2010), or cyberstalking, the use of technology to obtain information about other people, and persistent calls (Wilson, Sheridan & Garratt, 2021; Alonso-Ruido, Rodríguez-Castro, Martínez-Román & Lameiras-Fernández, 2024).

Digital violence can manifest itself through controlling access to and use of technological media in order to isolate the victim from social networks (Dragiewicz, Burgess, Matamoros-Fernández., Salter, Suzor, Woodlock et al., 2018), meaning that internet use can generate interpersonal conflicts. In terms of legislation, the Ley de Acceso de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre de Violencia para el Estado de Hidalgo (Instituto de Estudios Legislativos, 2007), last amended on May 26, 2025, defines digital violence as follows:

It is any malicious act carried out through the use of Information and Communication Technologies that threatens the integrity, dignity, privacy, freedom, and private life of women or causes damage both in the private and public spheres to their self-image, as well as moral damage to them and/or their families (page 6).

In the context of intimate relationships, digital violence manifests itself through interpersonal conflicts over internet use, including control, harassment, and abuse through technology and social media. Of particular note is coercive digital control, which involves the use of phones and social media to limit freedom, denigrate, defame, or threaten a partner (Linares, Aranda, García-Domingo, Amezcua, Fuentes & Moreno‑Padilla, 2021). Digital violence encompasses multiple forms of aggression, with up to 18 types identified (Caridade, Braga & Borrajo, 2019), ranging from coercive digital control (De-Los-Reyes, Jaureguizar, Bernaras & Redondo, 2021) to direct aggression through humiliation and insults (Borrajo, Gámez-Guadix, Pereda & Calvete, 2015). The following section defines direct aggression and coercive digital control.

Direct aggression consists of causing harm to a partner or ex-partner using digital means and through behaviors such as “humiliation, threats, [...] insults, or private information dissemination (including photos or videos) and identity theft (e.g., creating a fake partner profile in a social network with the intent to cause harm) through electronic means” (Borrajo et al., 2015: pages 362-364). These behaviors are intentional and are carried out to harm the partner.

On the other hand, Harris and Woodlock (2019) define digital coercive control as “the use of devices and digital media to stalk, harass, threaten, and abuse partners (or ex-partners)” (p. 533) and is carried out through “abusive text messages, monitoring via apps and GPS devices, and image-based sexual abuse” (Harris & Woodlock, 2021: page 396). Digital coercive control involves the use of technologies that allow for particular reach because they are easily and quickly developed (Harris & Woodlock, 2021), advantages that enable the formation of abuses different from those identified as occurring outside of virtual reality, particularly because they can be carried out in real time (Dragiewicz et al., 2018). Thus, the perpetrator has various digital options for establishing permanent contact with the victim.

A distinctive feature of these types of violence is that technological media, by breaking down the barriers of space and time, allow the perpetrator to create a sense of omnipresence in the victim, even if this is not real (Harris & Woodlock, 2021). It also serves to perpetuate the harm and stigmatization of victims (Henry, Flynn & Powell, 2020), which can permanently affect the lives of those who have been assaulted. Temporal and spatial boundaries have been modified since social networks and digital profiles are not limited to any geographical location. This is exacerbated by the publication of intimate images and videos without consent, abusive emails, social media posts, and constant monitoring of activities, among others. Such practices create a condition of entrapment and lack of freedom (Stark, 2007). In fact, both authors highlight how this coercive digital control is more prevalent among women, creating a “trap” or “lack of freedom” that restricts their space for action (Kelly, 2003).

Cyber abuse in intimate relationships is a prevalent practice among university students (Toplu-Demirtaş, Akcabozan-Kayabol, Araci-Iyiaydin & Fincham, 2022). Women are the main victims of digital violence in intimate relationships (Powell & Flynn, 2023), and many of them lack knowledge about how this technology-facilitated violence manifests itself (Leyton, Boddy, O’Leary & Liang, 2023). In particular, among Mexican university students, this form of violence has become normalized as a social practice (Gómez, 2023; Marganski, Melander & DeKeseredy, 2022), and it is women students who have more negative emotional reactions to aggression than men (Reed, Tolman & Ward, 2016). Likewise, among university students, a risk factor for intimate partner violence through technology is a lack of emotional repair, specifically after the breakup of a relationship (McMillan, Schroeder & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2023).

2.2. Emotional Skills and Internet Use

Emotional skills, such as attention, clarity, and emotional repair, enable individuals to obtain information about their emotions and regulate them (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2016; Blasco-Belled, Rogoza, Torrelles‑Nadal & Alsinet, 2020). In this context, Blasco-Belled et al. (2020) define these three skills as follows: emotional attention is being attentive to one’s own and others’ emotional and affective responses; emotional clarity is the identification and understanding of emotional patterns; and, finally, emotional repair is the regulation of emotions in different situations.

People who have higher levels of these emotional skills generally experience greater happiness and self‑esteem, reduce negative emotional states (Peris, Maganto & Kortabarria, 2018), generate better interpersonal relationships, and reduce certain types of violence (Pérez-Fuentes, Molero-Jurado, Barragán‑Martín & Gázquez-Linares, 2019).

Studies show that high levels of emotional clarity and repair are associated with higher levels of happiness and satisfaction (Extremera, Reyç & Pena, 2016; Blasco-Belled et al., 2020). However, emotional attention presents more complex results: while it can reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety, it can also intensify them in vulnerable people, generating intrapersonal conflicts due to internet use, by making them more sensitive to their symptoms, which can decrease their subjective well-being (Blasco-Belled et al., 2020).

Young people show greater emotional awareness in their daily lives (Moysén-Chimal, Villaveces-López, Estrada-Laredo, Balcázar-Nava & Gurrola-Peña, 2022), especially in terms of concern for their feelings, their mood, and their happiness (Domínguez, Nieto & Portela, 2022). In relation to gender, it has been found that women have greater emotional attention and men have greater emotional repair. Sanmartín, Gonzálvez and Vicent (2016) found higher values in the three skills assessed in women than in men; however, Extremera et al. (2016) determined that men have higher results in repair (Moysén-Chimal et al., 2022).

The relationship between internet use and emotional skills is reciprocal; sometimes emotions lead to increased internet use and vice versa, internet use can lead to a decrease in subjective well-being and negative or positive emotions (Peris et al., 2018; Rodrigues, Marques, Pereira & Macedo, 2020; Sayeed, Islam, Christopher, Zubayer, Kundu, Tariq et al., 2023), to a decrease in self-esteem, greater loneliness and depression, both in attention and repair skills (Beranuy, Oberst, Carbonell & Chamarro, 2009) as a consequence of the intrapersonal conflicts generated by internet use.

Although the internet benefits young people in their interpersonal relationships and access to information, it can also contribute to certain psychological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disorders (Rodrigues et al., 2020). Benson, Hand and Hartshorne (2018) state that internet use, especially social media, has a negative effect on young people’s social performance, and Pérez and Quiroga-Garza (2019) determine that a reduction in coexistence and participation in social events evidences this. Young people have a greater dependence on and addiction to the internet, hindering social bonds and emotional repair (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017).

In the context of university students, this use is more closely associated with psychological aspects of family relationships, increased anxiety, and isolation. Internet use can lead to negative self-evaluation and ruminative self-conscious thinking, especially in women, who are more focused on their emotions and interpersonal relationships and are more prone to depression (Loss et al., 2021).

From a gender perspective, women connect with depressed moods, while men do so when they have higher anxiety, and this connection does not depend on greater or lesser use, but rather is a consequence of whether they participate passively or actively (Peris et al., 2018).

Men use the internet more for entertainment, while women use it more for socialization and emotional reasons (Vega, Muñoz & Acevedo, 2021). This leads to problematic internet use in men, resulting in social isolation, loss of control, or abstraction from reality; meanwhile, women develop an addiction to social communication and its impact on self-image (Marazzitti, Baroni, Mucci, Piccinni, Ghilardi, Fiorillo et al., 2020).

Regardless of gender, it has been found that the higher the level of problematic internet use, the greater the psychological distress when the person wants to regulate negative emotional states (Rodrigues et al., 2020) and interpersonal and intrapersonal problems (Vega et al., 2021). However, one of the most worrying risks of dependence is positive self-efficacy: people who evaluate the use of the internet and social media positively are less aware of the risks involved in abuse or increased use, especially on social media, and are at greater risk of dependence.

In line with this argument, the study by Gaeta, Orejudo and Cebollero-Salinas (2025) supports the impact of the FOMO (fear of missing out) effect and socio-emotional digital skills as predictors of different behaviors among university students, especially in cases of phubbing. In this sense, internet use is generating manifestations of digital violence because this scenario requires digital self-control tools and emotional skills that play a moderating role in the case of FOMO, phubbing, media multitasking, and inter- and intrapersonal conflicts in family and couple systems.

The introduction and theoretical framework highlight the need to analyze inter- and intrapersonal conflicts related to Internet use and their reflection in digital violence among university couples and how emotional skills, particularly in emotional attention, clarity, and repair, in victims are predictors of this digital violence, as well as the gender differences that arise in this regard.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants

A cross-sectional, correlational, and comparative quantitative study was conducted to collect data from individuals who have or have had a partner on digital violence victimization and social-emotional skills among undergraduate students at the Actopan Higher School in Hidalgo, Mexico. A sample of 605 students (410 women and 195 men) was collected. The average age is 20.62 years.

3.2. Instruments

Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire (CDAQ) (Borrajo et al., 2015); Mexican version adapted by Hidalgo‑Rasmussen, Javier-Juárez, Chávez-Flores and Zurita-Aguilar (2022). This scale assesses the different behaviors of victims and perpetrators in digital abuse in intimate relationships. It consists of 20 items for victim or perpetrator behavior. In our research, we analyzed only the victimization dimension of the CDAQ. Perpetration items were excluded because the study focused on understanding the victims’ experiences and their relationships with emotional skills and conflicts over internet use, rather than aggressive behaviors. This decision aligns with the objective of examining psychosocial impacts on victims rather than predictors of perpetration. The items are organized into two dimensions: direct aggression (11 items) and digital coercive control (9 items). The format is a six-point Likert scale where 1 = never and 6 = almost always, and a higher value on the scale indicates greater digital abuse. The reliability analysis according to Cronbach’s alpha for the dimensions is: direct aggression victimization was 0.84, and for digital coercive control, victimization was 0.87 (Hidalgo-Rasmussen et al., 2022). Cronbach’s alpha for our sample, we obtain a value of 0.84 for direct aggression as a victim and 0.92 for digital coercive control, with values close to those in the original questionnaire.

The Internet-Related Experiences Questionnaire (CERI) assesses the dimensions of interpersonal conflicts (4 items) and intrapersonal conflicts (6 items) related to internet use. The format is a Likert scale with options ranging from 1 = never to 6 = always. The scale indicates that a higher value indicates greater interpersonal or intrapersonal conflict. The first factor showed internal consistency, according to Cronbach’s alpha, of 0.74, while the second obtained 0.75. Overall, the scale exhibited internal consistency of 0.77 (Fargues, Lusar, Jordania & Sánchez, 2009). Cronbach’s alpha on our sample, we obtain an internal consistency of 0.74, in addition, 0.76 was obtained for interpersonal conflict and 0.77 for intrapersonal conflict, with values close to those in the original questionnaire.

Salovey and Mayer’s Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) was adapted to the Mexican version by Ocaña, García and Cruz (2019). This scale assesses people’s perceptions of their levels of attention, clarity, and repair of emotions. It consists of 24 items distributed across three dimensions (8 items per dimension). The questionnaire is a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree (Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2005). The reliability analysis according to Cronbach’s alpha for each dimension is: emotional attention, an alpha of 0.90; emotional clarity, 0.90; and emotional repair, 0.86. Cronbach’s alpha on our sample, we obtain a value of 0.86 for emotional attention, 0.90 for emotional clarity, and 0.85 for emotional repair, with values close to those in the original questionnaire.

It has been verified that the results obtained from Cronbach’s alphas in our sample show high or excellent internal consistency, depending on the case, and are very similar to those reported in the original questionnaire research.

3.3. Procedure

The questionnaires have been combined into a single document and completed in the following order: sociodemographic variables, CDAQ questionnaire, CERI questionnaire, and finally, the TMMS-24 questionnaire. The questionnaire was completed in person, collectively, and exclusively by students of legal age. Initially, students were informed of the general purpose, nature, duration, and meaning of the questions in the CDAQ questionnaire, the handling of data for research purposes, the anonymity of the responses, and the possibility of not responding or subsequently rejecting the use of their responses. They were then asked to sign an informed consent form and confirm their willingness to participate. The students completed the questionnaire during class time and under the supervision of the researchers. The study followed the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the university’s ethics and governance. The article has been approved as part of the project entitled Digital Intimate Partner Violence and Social-Emotional Skills in University Students (UAEH-DIDI-DI-ESA-PSIC-2024-06), approved by the Research Department of the Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo.

3.4. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (version 25). The initial exploration confirmed that no data were missing. First, the responses received were coded, and descriptive and inferential analyses were performed. Table 1 shows the calculated descriptive statistics for each variable, including mean, standard deviation, asymmetry, and kurtosis, in order to evaluate the distribution of the data. The normality of the variables we analyzed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. As this was not met, statistical tools for nonparametric variables, such as the Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon W, were used. Spearman’s correlation we used to investigate the correlation of nonparametric variables. Assumption checks were conducted for the regression models. Residual plots indicated no major deviations from linearity or homoscedasticity. Normality of residuals was assessed using Q-Q plots and the Shapiro-Wilk test, which showed an acceptable approximation for large samples. Regression assumptions were checked, including multicollinearity, and no violations were detected. These checks support the validity of the regression analyses.

 

Gender	Dimensions	N	M (DT)	K-S	Min-Max	Asymmetry	Kurtosis
Women	Direct aggression	410	13.62 (4.46)	0.000	11-51	3.293	16.453
	Digital coercive control	410	14.30 (7.89)	0.000	9-54	2.342	6.278
	Intrapersonal conflict	410	15.79 (5.17)	0.000	6-34	0.708	0.280
	Interpersonal conflict	410	9.09 (3.08)	0.000	4-20	0.869	0.860
	Emotional attention	410	26.27 (6.81)	0.000	10-40	0.111	-0.832
	Emotional clarity	410	22.42 (7.20)	0.000	8-40	0.340	-0.638
	Emotional repair	410	24.86 (7.05)	0.000	8-40	0.108	-0.770
Men	Direct aggression	195	14.01 (5.28)	0.000	11-51	3.073	11.623
	Digital coercive control	195	14.08 (8.21)	0.000	9-54	2.077	3.796
	Intrapersonal conflict	195	14.95 (4.70)	0.000	6-34	0.608	0.653
	Interpersonal conflict	195	8.91 (2.92)	0.000	4-20	0.543	0.234
	Emotional attention	195	25.29 (6.86)	0.015	10-40	0.054	-0.598
	Emotional clarity	195	24.43 (7.57)	0.000	8-40	0.213	-0.758
	Emotional repair	195	27.45 (6.46)	0.200*	8-40	-0.223	-0.039

Table 1. Descriptive statistics by gender

In addition to traditional descriptive statistics, asymmetry and kurtosis values were included for each variable in order to evaluate the shape of the distributions. These indicators allow for the identification of possible biases or atypical concentrations in the data, which is especially relevant in contexts where nonparametric tests are applied. In this case, the high values of asymmetry and kurtosis observed in some variables (e.g., direct aggression in women: asymmetry = 3.293; kurtosis = 16.453) reinforce the decision to use Spearman correlations, since these do not require the assumption of normality. Thus, the inclusion of these statistics provides a deeper understanding of the nature of the data and supports the validity of the analyses performed.

4. Results

4.1. Correlations Between the Variables Studied

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics and Spearman correlations between the variables analyzed, differentiated by gender. The results, at a confidence interval of p < 0.05, show consistent patterns of association, although with some relevant differences between men and women.

In relation to women, positive and significant correlations were observed between direct aggression and digital coercive control, as well as with intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts arising from internet use. Positive associations were also identified between interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts and between the three dimensions of emotional skills (attention, clarity, and repair). In contrast, negative correlations were found between conflicts and emotional clarity and repair skills, suggesting that distress caused by digital interactions may interfere with emotional repair.

Among men, some of these associations were also observed. Direct aggression and coercive digital control are positively correlated with each other and with interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts. Positive correlations were also observed between conflicts and emotional attention, as well as between the three emotional skills. However, negative correlations with clarity and emotional repair are less consistent than in women.

 

Gender	Dimensions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Women	1. Direct aggression
	2. Digital coercive control	0.531**
	3. Intrapersonal conflict	0.159**	0.122*
	4. Interpersonal conflict	0.160**	0.175**	0.565**
	5. Emotional attention	0.029	0.022	0.030	0.094
	6. Emotional clarity	-0.078	-0.043	-0.226**	-0.184**	0.365**
	7. Emotional repair	-0.059	-0.084	-0.179**	-0.134**	0.210**	0.535**
Men	1. Direct aggression
	2. Digital coercive control	0.587**
	3. Intrapersonal conflict	0.179**	0.239**
	4. Interpersonal conflict	0.144*	0.210**	0.548**
	5. Emotional attention	-0.100	0.097	0.154*	0.212**
	6. Emotional clarity	-0.183*	-0.050	-0.085	-0.092	0.347**
	7. Emotional repair	-0.086	-0.088	-0.136	-0.154	0.198**	0.403**
Note: 1=Direct aggression; 2=Coercive digital control; 3=Intrapersonal conflict; 4=Interpersonal conflict; 5=Emotional attention; 6=Emotional clarity; 7=Reparation. **p < 0.05; *p < 0.01.

Table 2. Spearman correlations differentiated by gender

4.2. Stepwise Linear Regression

4.2.1. Exploratory Stepwise Regression for Direct Aggression

An exploratory stepwise regression was applied to identify potential predictors of direct aggression. This approach was chosen due to the exploratory nature of the study and the absence of strong theoretical models for these specific variables. However, stepwise procedures have important limitations, including risk of overfitting and biased coefficient estimates, so results should be interpreted with caution. Regression assumptions were verified prior to analysis, confirming acceptable normality of residuals and absence of multicollinearity. A single weak model was identified for women. Table 3 shows that, for women, intrapersonal conflict had a small predictive effect on direct aggression, explaining only 2.2% of the variance (R² = 0.022, F(1, 409) = 9.018, p = 0.003). The coefficient β = 0.147, t (408) = 3.003, p = 0.003 indicates a modest association that should be interpreted cautiously.

 

Model	R	R2	R2 adjusted	F (gl1, gl2)	p	ß standardized	Semi partial correlation
1 (intrapersonal conflicts)	0.147b	0.022	0.019	9.018 (1, 409)	0.003	0.147	0.147

Table 3. Summary of the regression model for direct aggression (women)

For men, no significant regression model was identified for the direct aggression variable, suggesting that conflicts arising from internet use do not significantly explain this type of behavior in this population. This could indicate the presence of other factors not considered in the model that influence direct aggression.

4.2.2.Exploratory Stepwise Regression for Digital Coercive Control

Exploratory stepwise regression was applied to identify predictors of digital coercive control. This method was used in an exploratory context, but it has limitations, including overfitting and biased coefficients. Therefore, results should be interpreted with caution. Models with weak predictive power were identified for both women and men.

Table 4 shows that, for women, interpersonal conflict had a small predictive effect on digital coercive control, explaining only 2.1% of the variance (R² = 0.021, F(1, 409) = 8.911, p = 0.003). The coefficient β = 0.146, t (409) = 2.985, p = 0.003 indicates a weak association that should be interpreted cautiously.

 

Model	R	R2	R2 adjusted	F (gl1, gl2)	p	ß standardized	Semi partial correlation
1 (intrapersonal conflicts)	0.146b	0.021	0.019	8.911 (1, 409)	0.003	0.146	0.146

Table 4. Summary of the regression model for digital coercive control (women)

Table 5 shows that, for men, intrapersonal conflict showed a modest predictive relationship with digital coercive control, explaining 5% of the variance (R² = 0.050, F(1, 194) = 10.111, p = 0.002). The coefficient β = 0.223, t(194) = 3.18, p = 0.002, suggests a small effect rather than a practical determinant.

 

Model	R	R2	R2 adjusted	F (gl1, gl2)	p	ß standardized	Semi partial correlation
1 (intrapersonal conflicts)	0.223b	0.050	0.045	10.111 (1, 194)	0.002	0.223	0.223

Table 5. Summary of the regression model for digital coercive control (men)

Although stepwise regression can help identify relevant predictors in exploratory contexts, it is not recommended for confirmatory analyses because it may produce unstable models and biased coefficients. Future research should prioritize theory-driven models that include interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict, emotional skills, gender interactions, and age as a covariate, as suggested by best practices.

This result suggests that internal distress related to internet use is also linked to digital coercive control behaviors, possibly as a compensatory mechanism for insecurity or emotional conflict.

4.3. Other Complementary Analyses

To complement the analyses of gender differences, effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s D, as shown in Table 6. The results indicate that, in general, the differences between men and women in the variables analyzed have very small or small effect sizes. In particular, men scored slightly higher, with a small effect size, in emotional clarity (d = -0.27) and emotional repair (d = -0.38). On the other hand, women scored slightly higher in direct aggression, digital coercive control, interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts over internet use, and emotional attention, although with very small effect sizes (d < 0.20), indicating that these differences, although present, are not substantial in practical terms. These findings reinforce the idea that, while there are some gender differences, their magnitude is limited and should be interpreted with caution.

 

Variable	Women’s Average	Men’s Average	Cohen’s D	Interpretation	Who scores the most points?
Direct aggression	13.62	14.01	-0.08	Very small	Men
Digital coercive control	14.30	14.08	0.03	Very small	Women
Intrapersonal conflict	15.79	14.95	0.17	Very small	Women
Interpersonal conflict	9.09	8.91	0.06	Very small	Women
Emotional attention	26.27	25.29	0.14	Very small	Women
Emotional clarity	22.42	24.43	-0.27	Small	Men
Emotional repair	24.86	27.45	-0.38	Small	Men

Table 6. Mean by gender and Cohen’s D values for each variable compared between genders

We explored whether emotional skills (attention, clarity, and repair) moderated the relationship between interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts over internet use and digital violence victimization, direct aggression, and digital coercive control behaviors. No interaction was statistically significant (p > 0.05). However, a non-significant trend we observed in the interaction between intrapersonal conflict and emotional clarity (β = 0.005, p = 0.261), suggesting a possible weak protective effect of emotional clarity that may attenuate the relationship between internal distress and direct aggression. In psychoeducational and digital violence victimization prevention contexts, even modest differences can have relevant practical implications. For example, the fact that men score higher on emotional clarity and repair (d = -0.27 and d = -0.38, respectively) could indicate a greater willingness to emotionally manage conflicts, which can be leveraged in gender-differentiated interventions. Similarly, the differences observed in emotional attention and digital coercive control, although small, reinforce the need to consider gender-sensitive approaches in social-emotional skills training.

A MANOVA we performed to evaluate multivariate differences by gender in the dependent variables. The result was not significant (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.990, F (4, 597) = 1.45, p = 0.215), indicating that there are no overall differences between men and women in scores for direct aggression, digital coercive control, and digital interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts. Overall, this non-significant result suggests that any observed gender-related tendencies in subsequent analyses should be interpreted with caution and cannot be considered robust.

Partial correlations were calculated controlling for age. The results confirmed that conflicts continue to correlate significantly with problematic behaviors:

• •Direct aggression ~ Intrapersonal conflict: ρ = 0.160, p < 0.001 

• •Digital coercive control ~ Interpersonal conflict: ρ = 0.198, p < 0.001 

This reinforces the robustness of the findings, regardless of age.

The results obtained reveal consistent patterns among the variables studied, highlighting the relationship between victimization from digital violence, especially digital coercive control, and conflicts arising from internet use, as well as its link to emotional skills. Gender differences were observed in both correlations and predictive models, with statistically significant but small effects. Furthermore, complementary analyses suggest that, although emotional skills do not robustly moderate these relationships, they may play a protective role. These findings, together with the subtle differences between men and women, provide a solid basis for interpreting the results from a psychosocial and gender perspective, which is further developed in the discussion section below.

5. Discussion

This research aimed to analyze the extent victimization through digital violence in intimate relationships, through monitoring, coercive control, and online surveillance, and its relationship with conflicts arising from internet use and the emotional skills of attention, clarity, and repair in men and women university students. To this end, three main hypotheses were proposed.

Regarding the first hypothesis, the results show positive correlations between direct aggression and digital coercive control, which reaffirms previous studies such as that of López-Cepero, Vallejos-Saldarriaga and Merino-García (2021), where we identified that victimization by digital coercive control affects one in three participants, predominating over direct aggression. This finding is also related to the normalization of digital coercive control in young couples, influenced by myths of romantic love (Sánchez-Hernández, Herrera-Enríquez & Expósito, 2020). In this sense, although some tendencies suggest differences between men and women, these should be interpreted cautiously, given that the MANOVA did not reveal significant multivariate differences: women tend to perceive the risks of digital intimate partner violence less, while men report different patterns of emotional response to digital coercive control. In our sample, men showed a significant correlation between digital coercive control and emotional attention, while in women, it was related to emotional repair. However, the results of the effect size using Cohen’s D indicate that although there are some gender differences, their magnitude is limited and should be interpreted with caution. These results partially confirm the first hypothesis.

Regarding the second hypothesis, positive correlations were found between interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts arising from internet use, with no distinction by gender. In women, interpersonal conflict was related to emotional attention; in men, this skill was associated with both interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts. Positive correlations were also observed between emotional attention and digital violence victimization behaviors (direct aggression and coercive digital control), suggesting that emotional attention may be more closely linked to emotional monitoring than to emotional repair (Rivera-Véliz & Araujo-Robles, 2020).

On the other hand, emotional clarity and repair showed negative correlations with interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts due to internet use, indicating that the more problematic the internet use, the lower the emotional clarity and repair, leading to a lower capacity for emotional repair. These correlations were low, which is consistent with Rivera-Véliz and Araujo-Robles (2020), and can be explained by the perceptual nature of the TMMS-24 instrument (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2007) in relation to the three social-emotional skills. Taken together, these findings confirm the second hypothesis.

Finally, regarding the third hypothesis, regression analyses indicated a weak predictive relationship between intrapersonal conflict and direct aggression in women, while we found no significant model for this variable in men. Regarding digital coercive control, interpersonal conflict in women and intrapersonal conflict in men showed small predictive effects, which should be interpreted cautiously. These results are consistent with qualitative studies that indicate that women are subject to social coercive control by their partners due to the interactions they establish with other men in public spaces (Huerta, 2022), while in men, trust in their partner acts as a protective factor against intimate partner violence (Huerta & Canales, 2023).

Also, significant correlations were observed between the variables of digital violence victimization and interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts arising from internet use, regardless of gender. This suggests that internet use can facilitate coercive digital control and direct aggression by reducing social and moral constraints as a result of the multiple possibilities offered by digital resources for communication and interaction, with each person able to choose to use them positively or negatively (Gianesini & Brighi, 2015). These findings confirm the third hypothesis.

The results should also be understood from an evolutionary and contextual perspective. Gómez‑González, Luna and Herrera-Mijangos (2023) point out that victims of harassment learn from past conflictive experiences, which allows them to set boundaries in future relationships. This learning may explain why some emotional correlations are low with direct aggression and digital coercive control, regardless of gender: responses may be influenced by previous relationships rather than the current one.

In addition, the breakdown of interpersonal relationships, especially romantic or friendly ones, has been associated with cyberbullying, a phenomenon linked to the growing use of ICTs in gender-based violence dynamics. This widespread access to the internet is transforming relationship styles, where face-to-face interaction is being replaced by relationships mediated by electronic devices (Felipe-Castaño, León‑Del‑Barco, Polo-Del-Río, Mendo-Lázaro, Gómez-Carroza & Fajardo-Bullón, 2019).

In this context, women tend to perceive their use of the internet as more problematic, with repercussions on their personal, academic, and emotional lives (Vega et al., 2021), which is reflected in the interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts detected. It is possible that, in the face of digital violence victimization through coercive digital control, they seek to regulate their mood, which may indicate resilience resources. However, there may also be an area of inquiry regarding the possible romanticization of the violence exerted against them through coercive digital control, as they seek emotional repair after the aggression, which is an indicator of tolerance for this type of violence. Meanwhile, when men experience the same situation, they tend to focus on the emotional consequences of the aggression. This difference in emotional focus may explain why young women are at greater risk of being victims of digital violence.

Building on these findings, universities should implement in-person interventions that address both digital safety and socio-emotional competencies (Marcos-Sánchez & Curto-Rodríguez, 2025). First, mandatory digital literacy modules can be integrated into first-year orientation courses, lasting 4–6 weeks, and delivered in blended formats combining online resources and face-to-face workshops (Öncül, 2021; Mayisela, 2022). Second, social-emotional learning (SEL) interventions should include semester-long workshops facilitated by trained psychologists or educators, focusing on emotional regulation, conflict resolution, and resilience strategies (Chang, Chang & Price, 2024). Third, technology-facilitated dating violence prevention programs should adopt interactive methodologies—such as role-playing and case‑based discussions—within campus seminars and peer-led campaigns (An, Welch-Brewer & Tadese, 2024; Wong, Bouchard & Lee, 2023). Effectiveness can be assessed through pre- and post-intervention measures of emotional skills (TMMS-24) and reductions in reported digital coercive behaviors, ensuring alignment with institutional policies and the journal’s educational focus. These evidence-informed strategies not only address immediate risks but also promote long-term digital citizenship and emotional well-being among university students.

6. Conclusions

This study analyzed only victimization outcomes from the CDAQ, excluding perpetration items, to focus on the psychosocial impact on victims. Digital coercive control emerged as the most prevalent form of technology-facilitated violence among both men and women. Direct aggression was reported by both genders, with very small differences: women scored M = 13.62 and men M = 14.01, and the effect size was negligible (Cohen’s d = −0.08). These findings indicate that direct aggression is not exclusive to women, as previously stated, but rather shows a similar low-level presence in both groups. Gender differences were subtle and statistically weak, underscoring the need for gender-sensitive interventions focused on emotional regulation and digital safety for all students.

Interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts related to the use of the internet, such as avoiding problems and the lack of digital coercive control of time online, are accentuated. In women, the search for emotional redress in the face of coercive digital control could indicate resilience, but also a possible romanticization of violence. In men, greater emotional attention to aggression were observed, which could reflect greater emotional awareness. Therefore, findings indicate subtle tendencies that could relate to gender; however, these associations are weak and not statistically robust, as confirmed by the non-significant MANOVA. Therefore, they should not be interpreted as strong determinants.

This research contributes to the scientific community from both a theoretical and practical standpoint. The theoretical contributions refer to digital violence victimization in intimate relationships due to interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts arising from internet use, integrating emotional skills as predictors of these conflicts from a gender perspective. Likewise, it provides empirical evidence on the different relationships between men and women university students and on the emotional mechanisms underlying digital victimization. From a practical perspective, the contributions offer a solid basis for designing educational and preventive interventions.

It is important to note that the research has a number of major limitations, such as the sample size, the subjectivity of perception when responding to the questionnaires, which does not allow for the generalization of results, the cross-sectional nature of the study, which does not allow for the establishment of causality, and the possible influence of the cultural context of the area on the perception of violence. For example, participants often commented to the interviewers that, when reading the questionnaire statements on digital violence victimization for the first time, they learned about the actions that are classified as this type of violence. This leads us to future lines of research, such as the study of the moderating role of emotional skills using structural or longitudinal models. Another line of research would be to expand the sample to other regions of the country to see if this is generalized in the Mexican university environment. Finally, conducting research focused on emotional education and the responsible use of technologies in interpersonal relationships.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

This article is part of the project Digital Intimate Partner Violence and Social-Emotional Skills in University Students by the Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico.

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